1973

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The U.S. put 26 payloads into orbit in 23 launches and the U.S.S.R. orbited 107 payloads in 86 launches. The U.S. total included 13 spacecraft orbited by the Dept. of Defense in 10 launches (2 of them multiple launches) and 13 by NASA. NASA'S 13 successful launches out of 14 attempts nearly matched the agency's 1972 record of 17 flawless launches out of 17 attempts. NASA'S Skylab program successfully launched the first U.S. experimental space station-the Orbital Workshop-and three successive crews to man it. Skylab 4, the final mission and the longest-duration manned space flight to date (84 days 1 hr 16 min), also set records for man's cumulative time in space (84 days), duration of extravehicular activity (7 hrs 1 min), cumulative orbital EVA time for one mission (22 hrs 21 min), and distance in orbit for a manned mission (55.5 million km; 34.5 million mi). By the year's end the Workshop had circled the earth more than 3350 times and housed nine astronauts. The Skylab 2 crew's repair in space of the Skylab 1 Workshop, after aerodynamic forces damaged it during liftoff, salvaged the endangered program and proved man could do difficult construction work in space.

The Skylab 2 crew spent 28 days in space and the Skylab 3 crew 59 days, each mission a record at the time. The missions proved man could live and work in space for extended periods; expanded solar astronomy beyond earth-based observations, collecting much valuable new data that might revise understanding of the sun and its effects on the earth; and improved techniques for surveying earth resources from space, returning more information than planned.

In NASA'S unmanned program, Pioneer 10 (launched in 1972) swept past Jupiter in December 1973 at a distance of 130 000 km (81 000 mi). The first spacecraft to fly beyond the orbit of Mars and to penetrate the Asteroid Belt capped its two-year, 826-million-km (514-million-mi) journey by returning more than 300 closeup photos of Jupiter and its inner moons and providing new information on the planet's atmosphere and magnetic field. By the year's end Pioneer 10 was beginning its five-year extended mission to reach Saturn's orbit in 1976 and the orbit of Uranus, the limit of spacecraft communications with the earth, in 1979. Thereafter it was to become the first man-made object to es-cape the solar system. Pioneer 11, launched in April, had passed safely through three fourths of the Asteroid Belt on its way to its December 1974 encounter with Jupiter. Mariner 10, headed toward Mercury via Venus, was more than 14.5 million km (9 million mi) from the earth; it would pass by Venus in February 1974 and would provide the first closeup view of Mercury in March.

NASA also selected landing sites for the Viking project's landing of two spacecraft on Mars in 1976. Orbiter and lander critical design re-views, spacecraft thermal and structural tests, and other hardware tests were completed during the year. Scientific satellites launched in 1973 included Explorer 49 in lunar orbit to measure galactic and solar radio noise using occultation of the moon to reduce background interference, Explorer 50 to complete a study of the interplanetary environment over an 11-yr solar cycle, and Explorer 51 to study the earth's outer atmosphere. As December ended, scientists were studying Comet Kohoutek with optical telescopes, radio-telescopes, and radar from the ground; high-flying aircraft; and instruments on unmanned satellites, sounding rockets, and Skylab 4. Noaa 3, launched by NASA for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, would provide atmospheric soundings and very-high-resolution, day-and-night cloud-cover imaging.

Two communications satellites, Intelsat-IV F-7 for the International Telecommunications Satellite Organization and Anik 2 Canadian domestic comsat, were successfully launched, as well as Nnss 0-20 Transit navigational satellite for the Navy. ERTS 1, launched in mid-1972 as the first Earth Resources Technology Satellite, completed its 7000th photo-taking orbit of the earth, demonstrating the great potential of remote-sensing of the earth's resources by providing data for use throughout the world. All but one prime contractor for the space shuttle had been selected and design was proceeding on schedule. Most of the shuttle orbiter sub-contractors were lined up, with fabrication to begin in FY 1975. Nine nations in the European Space Research Organization agreed to build the Spacelab for a wide variety of applications as a shuttle payload. NASA and DOD made joint system studies for the space tug and tentative agreement was reached for DOD to develop an initial tug stage for the shuttle. The first two powered flights of the X-24B lifting body were success-fully made in the NASA and Air Force hypersonic aerospacecraft research program. NASA also vigorously pursued solutions to problems of aircraft noise, pollution, safety, and operational efficiency and technology for future-generation aircraft.

Flight tests of NASA's digital fly-by-wire advanced flight control system indicated the system improved handling qualities of aircraft in all flight conditions, with the reduced aircraft weight increasing payload potential and reducing fuel consumption. The JT8D engine refan program progressed to scheduling ground tests for February 1974. The engine modifications-in 727, 737, and DC-9 aircraft, models that made up 60% of the domestic commercial fleet-were expected to reduce areas affected by aircraft noise by 75%. A 67% reduction in 727 aircraft landing noise was anticipated from a two-segment landing procedure being tested in the NASA and Federal Aviation Administration noise abatement program. Automobile engines were used to demonstrate an internal combustion concept for reducing pollution emissions while increasing engine efficiency for general-aviation aircraft. New flight research programs included the remotely piloted re-search vehicle project in which the pilot flew scale models from a ground-based cockpit, eliminating risk to the test pilot and reducing test-flight costs more than 50%.

In NASA's sounding rocket program, more than 80 flights studied atmosphere, ionosphere, auroras and airglow, geomagnetic storms, meteor streams, and trapped radiation fluctuations; male astronomical observations in x-ray, ultraviolet, and radio regions of the electromagnetic spectrum; and supported other programs. Rocket launches provided a reference for calibration of equipment on Skylab's Apollo Telescope Mount. Forty-nine balloons were flown for scientific research and for development of new technology for long-duration orbital missions. DOD's year included further development and implementation of satellite communications and navigation systems, development of new military aircraft, and construction of advanced medium STOL prototypes. The U.S.S.R.'s record 86 launches topped 83 in 1971 and 74 in 1972. The 107 Soviet payloads included 85 Cosmos satellites, 2 Intercosmos 1 Luna, 2 Meteor, 1 Prognoz, 1 cooperative Soviet-French Oreol, 2 manned Soyuz, 1 Salyut, 4 Mars probes, and 4 Molniya I and 4 Molniya II comsats. The Luna 21 probe landed the Lunokhod 2 self-propelled vehicle on the moon for lunar studies. Soyuz 12 carried two cosmonauts into orbit on a two-day mission in September, the first Soviet manned flight since 1971, and Soyuz 13 carried two cosmonauts on an eight-day mission in December. Spacecraft system tests and experiments were reported successful on both flights. (Pres Rpt 1974; NASA Release 73- 281; NASA Activities, 1/15/74; A&A 1973; GSFC SSR, 12/31/73; GSFC Sounding Rocket Div)

NASA'S 15th anniversary year-memorable for advances in earth resources technology, aeronautics progress, expanded international cooperation in space, and increased promise for future manned and unmanned plane-tary exploration-boosted the U.S. space program from the spectacular orbit of Apollo lunar exploration to a steady program of extended service to science and mankind. Skylab's triumph heralded the approach of the shuttle era that would weld with the earth the vast regions of near-earth space, extending man's transportation system into regions beyond land, sea, and air. The newest Pioneer probes began penetration into the mysteries of outer planetary space. Budget restrictions in line with President Nixon's January $250-billion target for total Government spending slowed space shuttle man-power buildup, suspended work on the High Energy Astronomy Observatory, and required phase-out of communications satellite work and curtailment of work on nuclear propulsion. But Skylab, the space shuttle, the scheduled U.S.-U.S.S.R. 1975 Apollo Soyuz Test Project mission, the Viking, the Mariner Jupiter-Saturn mission, and many applications and aeronautics projects were retained in a balanced and productive program.

Dr. Homer E. Newell, NASA Associate Administrator for the past seven years and member of the NASA staff since October 1958, retired at the end of the year. Dr. Newell had been Science Program Coordinator in the Nation's first satellite program, the Naval Research Laboratory's Project Vanguard, before establishment of NASA. Tight funding and the near completion of the Skylab missions brought a net reduction in NASA Civil Service employees of 1646, including retirements, during the calendar year, with a total 25 598 on board Jan. 5, 1974.

Headquarters employees dropped by a net change of 80, Kennedy Space Center by 117, Johnson Space Center by 110, Marshall Space Flight Center by 374, Ames Research Center by 49, Flight Research Center by 13, Langley Research Center by 62, Lewis Research Center by 494 (with the phasing down of Plum Brook Station), Goddard Space Flight Center by 289, and Wallops Station by 14. AEC-NASA Space Nuclear Systems Office was closed with the end of the NERVA program. Further reductions of 628-including 405 at MSFC and 200 at LeRC-were scheduled in 1974, to bring the FY 1974 end-of-year total to the required 24 970 ceiling. Aerospace industry employment in the Nation increased to 946 000 in June but declined to 935 000 by the year's end. Techniques developed for aerospace activities were applied to earth-quake prediction, development of residential solar heating, and fuel-saving integrated systems for housing. NASA added 550 technical briefs to its more than 5000 technical innovations already available for U.S. industry use. More than 68 000 U.S. industrial and commercial firms requested additional data on these innovations. Some 3000 firms spent $625 000 for special assistance from NASA'S Regional Dissemination Centers; 1500 firms purchased 1891 computer programs and related documentation for $221 530. NASA liberalized its patent-licensing procedures to speed technology transfer and during 1973 five exclusive patent licenses, the largest number since the program's inception, were granted.

A NASA liaison office was opened in New York City to work directly with city agencies on public safety, drug detection, and fire prevention. A rechargeable heart pacemaker was developed under NASA auspices by the Johns Hopkins Univ. Applied Physics Laboratory. Electronic components designed for space use were incorporated in the device, which could be recharged at home by the patient, eliminating the need for surgery every two years to replace conventional devices. A new radio transmitter temperature pill allowed doctors to check localized internal body temperature changes. A portable visual testing device permitted early detection of eye disorders. A test hospital room for paralyzed patients used space-developed devices for remote operation of communications systems and appliances. The NASA FY 1974 appropriation of $3.002 billion was $13.9 million below the budget request, $62.4 million below the $3.0645-billion FY 1973 authorization, and $406 million below the FY 1973 appropriation of $3.408 billion. (A&A 1972; A&A 1973; Aerospace, 2/74, 6-11; NASA Off Comptroller; NASA Off of Admin; NASA SP-5119; NASA Release 73-281)

In its program of international cooperation, NASA launched Anik 2 domes-tic communications satellite for Telesat Canada and Intelsat-IV F-7 for Communications Satellite Corp. on behalf of the International Telecommunications Satellite Organization. A significant milestone was the Intergovernmental Agreement on U.S. and European cooperation on Spacelab, signed by the U.S., Belgium, France, West Germany, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom. To be funded and developed by nine members of the European Space Research Organization, the Spacelab would be carried into orbit by NASA'S space shuttle orbiter and would accommodate experiments and personnel on missions of 7 to 30 days.

Notable progress was made in the Apollo Soyuz Test Project, with the joint U.S.-U.S.S.R. rendezvous and docking mission on schedule for July 1975 launch. Working groups met in both countries and a November Moscow meeting familiarized eight U.S. astronauts with the Soviet Soyuz spacecraft. Docking system designs were essentially completed and all hardware construction was on schedule. Joint dynamic testing of test units began at Johnson Space Center. Flight crews were selected in both countries.

Eighty-three nations entered into Definitive Agreements for INTELSAT, permanently establishing the global communications satellite system envisioned in the US. Communications Satellite Act of 1962. Scientists from other nations cooperated in NASA studies ranging from investigations of the solar system to practical applications of space technology. ERTS 1 and Skylab environment and resources data were used throughout the world. Scientists from 37 countries and the United Nations participated in ERTS 1 experiments and Brazil and Canada established their own ERTS data-acquisition facilities. Four foreign experiments were carried on Skylab missions and foreign scientists participated in the Apollo solar telescope program and in correlated astronomy sounding rocket programs. Scientists in 19 countries and the U.N. participated in 40 Skylab data-analysis investigations. German and Australian scientists were coinvestigators for Pioneer 11 experiments and French and U.K. scientists for Mariner 10.

Investigators from 40 nations and ESRO were selected to participate in the Apollo 17 lunar sample program. A joint working group of the U.S.S.R. Academy of Sciences and NASA held the third and fourth meetings on space biology and medicine, exchanging information on manned space flight. Parallel communications channels using Intelsat and Molniya comsat systems were planned for 1974 to support the U.S.-U.S.S.R. Direct Communications Link, with construction of earth stations in both countries for access to each other's satellites. Work went forward for future cooperative satellite projects. Agreement was reached with Italy to fly San Marco C-2 in 1974. Negotiations were underway with West Germany for 1974 launch of the AEROS-B aeronomy satellite and work continued on the experimental CTS comsat to be launched with Canada, the HELIOS solar probe with Germany, the INTASAT ionospheric beacon with Spain, the UK-5 stellar x-ray satellite, Canada's Anik C, and U.K.'s X4 technology spacecraft. Negotiations were also underway on NASA launch services for the French-German Symphonie comsat in 1974 and two ESRO test comsats in 1976 and 1977. The U.S. and ESRO were about to enter agreement for an air traffic control and navigation satellite system.

During the year NASA launched 30 sounding rockets from ranges in other countries, including rockets carrying foreign payloads or cooperative experiments. New sounding rocket agreements were signed with Australia, Brazil, Germany, The Netherlands, Norway, and Sweden. (Pres Rpt 1974; NASA Release 73-281; NASA Activities, 1/15/74, 2-3)

A burgeoning worldwide energy shortage led President Nixon to propose in June the establishment of a Cabinet-level Dept. of Natural Resources, an Energy Research and Development Administration, and a Nuclear Energy Commission. The shortage reached crisis proportion with the embargo by Arab nations on oil shipments to the U.S. in retaliation for U.S. support to Israel during the October Arab-Israeli war. In a November speech President Nixon noted the U.S. was on the verge of "the most acute shortage of energy since World War II." He called for reduced use of heat, electricity, and gasoline; announced Federal Government steps to lower energy consumption; asked the Atomic Energy Commission to accelerate licensing and constructing nuclear power plants; and asked for an emergency energy act. Nine energy bills, passed in rapid succession by the first session of the 93rd Congress, included authorizations for mandatory fuel allocation programs, construction of the trans-Alaska pipeline, a return to year-round daylight saving time, a speed limit on interstate highways, and the National Emergency Act. Soaring prices of all kinds of fuel, long lines of cars and banned Sunday sales at gas stations, and airline fare increases and schedule cutbacks marked closing months of the year.

Economists forecast a possible depression as energy shortages aggravated an already recessed economy. Scientists sought additional sources of fossil fuels and, for the future, new sources of energy to make the U.S. energy-autonomous. The focus turned to NASA and its pioneering expertise in the technologies of solar energy and development of hydrogen as a substitute for gasoline in automobiles and air-craft. At the year's end pending legislation endorsed NASA cooperation with other appropriate agencies in solving the worldwide energy short-age and in providing the U.S. with future sources of non-fossil-fuel energy. (A&A 1973; Library of Congress, Congr Research Service, Major Legislation of the 93rd Congress; Newsweek, 12/3/73)

Aerospace industry sales increased to an estimated $24.9 billion, more than 10% above 1972's $23.5 billion. Commercial aerospace sales increased 43.1%, to $5.8 billion, reflecting deliveries of wide-bodied transports, helicopters, and general-aviation aircraft. Major aerospace sales included $13.8 billion to the Dept. of Defense, up from $13.2 billion; missile sales at $5,6 billion, up from $5.2 billion; and aircraft sales at $13.4 billion, up from $11.6 billion. Sales in the space area alone declined to $2.9 billion, from $3.0 billion in 1972. Executive and utility aircraft sales increased from $558 million in 1972 to $826 million-up 48%. Units delivered in-creased 39.1%. Civilian helicopter sales increased from $90 million in 1972 to $121 million in 1973, a gain of 48%. Aerospace export dollar value rose 27.6% because of two U.S. dollar devaluations, to a total of $4.9 billion; aerospace imports increased 37.5% to $777 million. Aerospace industry profits were expected to increase by 2.7% of sales after taxes. The 1973 profit rate for all manufacturing industries was expected to be 4.6%. (Aerospace, 2/74, 3)

U.S. scheduled airlines flew 161 billion passenger-miles carrying more than 200 million passengers, nearly 4 million tons of freight and express, and some 16 billion letters for the U.S. Postal Service. The U.S. fleet of 2250 aircraft was composed primarily of jet aircraft, valued at over $12 billion. Air freight accounted for a record billion dollars of operating revenue. Total operating revenue was just under $12 billion, but earnings, hard hit by rising fuel costs, were less than $200 million. (Aerospace, 2/74, 6-7)